#Altered states simulator#

The oxygen concentrations in most simulation cases fall below the level that induces a hypoxic state (<18%) after only about 15 minutes. The simulation showed that oxygen levels in narrow passages or halls with a single passage declined rapidly. This simulation program was used to simulate fire in complex compartments and buildings, and it has been verified in archaeology by simulating fire and comparing the results to samples from Chauvet-Pont d’Arc Cave, France.

#Altered states simulator#

We also used the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) developed by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

The simulations simulated the natural air tunnels between the cave internal and the external environment due to temperature differences. We simulated the use of artificial light in various closed space inside caves in order to analyze the conditions in such contexts in Upper Paleolithic caves. These symptoms usually occur at oxygen concentration lower than 14.5% and may occur even at higher concentrations associated with physical exercise or in extreme environments, such as the darkness and isolation typical of caves. Hypoxia causes physiological or behavioral changes such as drowsiness, euphoria, misjudgment, and loss of self-criticism. Hypoxia affects the nervous tissues, particularly in the frontal cortex and the right hemisphere of the brain, areas thought to be related to creativity associated with emotions. Oxygen concentration of 18% to 13.5% results in mild hypoxia anything lower results in severe hypoxia. Hypoxia is defined as a reaction to oxygen concentration below 18%. When the human body is deprived of its mandatory oxygen supply, a condition known as hypoxia ensues. The natural oxygen concentration in the atmosphere is 21%. We also argue that these are the reasons behind human engagement with subterranean natural features, and that humans targeted specific caves in order to establish and maintain their relationships with the entities of the underworld.Ĭaves-especially deep, dark caves with narrow passages that cannot be navigated without artificial light-are characterized by sharp reductions in oxygen concentration. The rock face itself, within the cave or the rockshelter, was conceived as a membrane, a tissue connecting the here-and-now world and the underground world beyond. We suggest that caves and rockshelters were conceived as portals to the underground world, a world of prosperity, plenty, and growth. Other evidence for fire use for light was also identified at the caves at Morgota, Covaciella, Comte, Pergouset, and Grotta della Bàsura among others. In Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, France, for example, various traces of fire use were found, such as formal hearths, scattered charcoal, lamps, torch marks, and thermal modification of the cave walls.

Fire was used as artificial light in order to reach the depths of the cave and allow a unique human activity in these completely dark spaces: the creation of the depictions themselves. The images are often found in dark, narrow passages or in dark halls with narrow passage access.

About 400 decorated caves have been found in Western Europe, mostly in Spain and France, and are dated to ca. Upper Paleolithic decorated caves, first discovered in Europe in the late 19th century, have generated great interest among researchers due to the seeming uniqueness of this phenomenon in human history. Indigenous people saw their well-being, prosperity, and perpetuation of the world order as dependent upon maintaining good relations and communicating with the entities inhabiting the upper and the lower worlds. Many indigenous societies viewed, and still view, the cosmos as a tripartite system, composed of an upper, a middle (or here-and-now) and lower world (also known as the netherworld or the underworld).

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